Astronomers using the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope at the top of the Maunakea volcano, have detected a new type of star that may one day become an extremely rare, neutron star with a gargantuan magnetic field, called a Magnetar.

The star was discovered by Tomer Shanar at the University of Amsterdam who used the telescope to measure the already high magnetic field of this star. What is particularly interesting, is that the star is only 2 solar masses ( 2 x bigger than our Sun) and was considered far too small to have such a large magnetic field.  It was measured to have a magnetic field 100,000 times stronger than Earth's field.  In addition, the star is rich in helium, suggesting it is nearing the end of its life as fusion of its hydrogen converts to helium.

Researchers believe this star has the right mass and magnetic field such that it will explode as a supernova when its hydrogen fuel is depleted and is fully converted to helium.  At this point, the star will undergo a massive explosion, followed by massive gravitational implosion or collapse, one so large that the protons and electrons of the nuclei in the Helium atoms become fused together to form neutrons.   This creates a neutron star, considered to be the densest form of matter in the Universe.   As a comparison,  the size of the current star (2 x the size of our Sun) would be compressed into a mass only 13 km wide.

During this implosion process, the star's rate of spin increases at an enormous rate as its mass follows conservation of angular momentum.  This can be compared to a spinning figure skater that increases spin when the skater's arms are pulled in towards the centre).  This same effect on the dense, collapsing, massive star will magnify the spin and increase the already large magnetic field by an estimated 10 Billion times, thus creating an unimaginably large magnetic field, and a new type of star called a Magnetar.

​Information source is Astronomy Magazine, December 2023, Randall Hyman

The atmosphere of a planet plays a crucial role in determining its habitability, or the ability of life to arise, persist, and evolve on its surface. Earth and Mars, two neighbouring planets in the inner solar system, offer a striking contrast in terms of their atmospheres and their potential for hosting life. While Earth has a rich and diverse atmosphere that has enabled the emergence of life as we know it, Mars has a thin and inhospitable atmosphere that limits its habitability. In this blog post, we will explore the main reasons why Earth has an atmosphere that created life and Mars does not.

1. Distance from the Sun

One of the primary factors that shape the atmosphere of a planet is its distance from the Sun, which determines the intensity and spectrum of solar radiation that reaches its surface. Earth is located at an ideal distance from the Sun, (the so called Goldilocks Zone) about 93 million miles or 149.6 million kilometers, where the solar energy is strong enough to drive photosynthesis and warm the planet, but not too intense to vaporize water or break down organic molecules. Mars, on the other hand, is much farther from the Sun, at a distance of about 142 million miles or 228 million kilometers, which means it receives only about half of the solar flux that Earth does. This results in a much colder and drier climate, where liquid water is scarce and the atmosphere is too thin to retain heat or protect the surface from harmful radiation.

1. Magnetic Field

Another crucial factor that influences the atmosphere of a planet is its magnetic field, which shields the atmosphere from the solar wind and prevents the loss of gas molecules to space. Earth has a strong and active magnetic field, generated by the motion of its molten core, which traps and redirects the charged particles of the solar wind away from the planet. This not only protects the atmosphere but also creates the auroras and the Van Allen radiation belts that contribute to the beauty and diversity of the planet's environment. Mars, in contrast, has a weak and inactive magnetic field, which allows the solar wind to strip away its atmosphere over time. As a result, Mars has lost much of its once-rich atmosphere, which contained water and carbon dioxide, and its surface is exposed to high levels of radiation and temperature fluctuations.

1. Plate Tectonics

A third factor that affects the atmosphere of a planet is its geological activity, particularly the process of plate tectonics, which recycles the crustal material and releases gases from the mantle to the surface. Earth has a dynamic and complex system of plate tectonics, where the continental and oceanic plates move and collide, creating mountains, valleys, and volcanoes, and exchanging materials and energy between the crust and mantle. This not only enriches the surface with minerals and nutrients but also regulates the climate by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through weathering and sequestering it in the ocean sediments and the rocks. Mars, by contrast, has a relatively static and simple lithosphere, with no evidence of plate tectonics or volcanic activity in the past billion years. This means that the Martian atmosphere has not been replenished or regulated by the geological processes that shaped Earth's atmosphere and made it conducive to life.
In conclusion, Earth has an atmosphere that created life and Mars does not mainly because of its distance from the Sun, its strong magnetic field, and its active plate tectonics. These factors have enabled Earth to maintain a stable and diverse atmosphere that supports a variety of organisms, from microbes to mammals, and that has sustained the biosphere for billions of years. Mars, by contrast, has a thin and depleted atmosphere that limits its habitability to extreme niches and that poses challenges for future human exploration.

"Those who can't remember the past are doomed to repeat it"  This famous quote by writer and philosopher George Santayana are harrowing words that apply today.  Archeological finds on Islands near Venice are indicating how the city dealt with the Black Plague that swept through Europe 700 years ago.  These finds show the extreme measures that were ordered to try and get the pandemic under control.

Image Courtesy of NASA
​In the Milky Way Galaxy, there are 3 types of stars that are best suited to contain planets within the "Goldilocks Zones".  These are the zones around a star that are not too hot, not too cold but are just right to contain planets capable of retaining liquid water, an atmosphere and thus can potentially contain life as we know it.  ​